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Explore beta-amyloid and tau in Alzheimer's disease and access the tools you need to better understand the role they play within this complex condition.
Healthy amyloid precursor protein (APP) is cleaved to pathogenic beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides through the sequential action of β- and γ-secretases. Similarly, tau protein is hyperphosphorylated by GSK3 and other kinases to first form paired helical filaments and subsequently neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs).
Here you can find an overview of beta-amyloid and tau, including their functions and structures, as well as find the antibodies and kits you need for your Alzheimer's disease research.
Contents
Beta-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease
Alzheimer's disease is characterized by the presence of neurotoxic Aβ plaques in the brain. These plaques are formed by monomeric Aβ spontaneously assembling into soluble oligomers, which cluster together to form insoluble fibrils. Evidence suggests a role for both soluble oligomers and insoluble fibrils in Alzheimer’s disease pathology, but their exact contributions are still under debate. Here we cover the generation of Aβ from APP and how structural variation of Aβ may explain the complex pathology of Alzheimer’s disease.
Pathogenic Aβ peptides are produced by the proteolytic cleavage of APP by enzyme complexes β- and γ-secretases. APP cleavage occurs via two distinct pathways (Figure 1). The non-amyloidogenic pathway provides beneficial neurotrophic effects and the amyloidogenic pathway produces neurotoxic Aβ peptides. The Aβ peptides formed via the amyloidogenic pathway can misfold and aggregate into deposits that contribute to Alzheimer’s disease pathology.
Figure 1. The non-amyloidogenic and amyloidogenic pathways of APP processing.
The non-amyloidogenic pathway
The non-amyloidogenic pathway involves cleavage of APP by α-secretase to generate two fragments: an 83 amino acid C-terminal fragment (C83) that remains in the membrane and an N-terminal ectodomain (sAPPα) that is released into the extracellular medium.
Three enzymes have been identified with α-secretase activity: ADAM9, ADAM10, and ADAM171. Importantly, cleavage of APP by α-secretase occurs within the Aβ domain and consequently prohibits Aβ peptide production.
Of note, the C83 membrane fragment can be subsequently cleaved by γ-secretase to produce a short fragment called P3 peptide and an APP intracellular domain (AICD). To date, the P3 peptide is believed to be pathologically irrelevant2.
The amyloidogenic pathway
The amyloidogenic pathway leads to neurotoxic Aβ generation. β-secretase (BACE1) mediates the first proteolysis step, which releases a large N-terminal ectodomain (sAPPβ) into the extracellular medium. A 99-amino acid C terminal fragment (C99) remains in the membrane3–5.
The newly exposed C99 N-terminus corresponds to the first amino acid of Aβ. Successive cleavage of this fragment by γ-secretase (between residues 38 and 43) releases the Aβ peptide. γ-secretase is a complex of enzymes consisting of presenilin 1 or 2 (PS1 and PS2), nicastrin, anterior pharynx defective (APH-1) and presenilin enhancer 2 (PEN2) 6–10.
Most of the Aβ peptides are 40 residues in length (Aβ 1–40), with a small percentage containing 42 residues (Aβ 1–42). Aβ 1–42 is considered the more neurotoxic form because the extra two amino acids provide a greater tendency to misfold and subsequently aggregate11. Elevated plasma levels of Aβ 1–42 have been correlated with Alzheimer’s disease12.
BACE inhibitors
Targeting Aβ accumulation by inhibiting its production is important to slow down the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. Blocking APP cleavage is made possible due to access to several β-secretase inhibitors.
Table 1. Commonly used inhibitors targeting β-secretase and Aβ production.
Small molecule | Activity | abID |
β-Secretase Inhibitor II (Z-VLL-CHO) | Peptidyl β-secretase inhibitor (reversible). Corresponds to the VNL-DA cleavage site on APP13. | |
AZD3839 | Potent and selective BACE-1 inhibitor (Ki = 26.1 nM), about 14-fold selectivity over BACE-2 (Ki = 372 nM)14. | |
Lanabecestat (AZD3293) | Highly potent BACE-1 inhibitor with IC50 = 610 pM (primary neuron cultures from mice), 310 pM (primary neuron cultures from guinea pigs), and 80 pM (SH-SY5Y cells over-expressing AβPP)15. | |
Loganin | Selective β-secretase inhibitor. Shows neuroprotective effects against Aβ(25-35)-induced cell death16. | |
LY2886721 | Potent and selective BACE-1 inhibitor (IC50 = 20.3 nM for recombinant hBACE-1)17. | |
Nilvadipine | Potent Ca2+ channel blocker that promotes Aβ clearance from the brain and reduced tau hyperphosphorylation18. | |
Verubecestat (MK-8931) | Selective, potent β-secretase 1 inhibitor (IC50 = 13 nM)19. |
Table 2. Recommended tools to study Aβ in Alzheimer's disease.
Target | Tools |
Beta-amyloid | |
β-secretase | |
Conformational variation of beta-amyloid
One barrier to understanding the role of Aβ in Alzheimer’s disease is the lack of correlation between Aβ in the brain and the cognitive ability of patients. For example, some patients with Aβ deposits show no symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease at all20,21.
The answer to Alzheimer’s disease heterogeneity may lie in structural variations of Aβ, which can form polymorphic Aβ oligomers in a process known as segmental polymorphism. This is where the segments that form beta sheets vary between different fibril structures22–24.
Therefore, like in prion diseases, unique forms of structurally distinct Aβ might be deposited in different places and at different times in the brains of patients with Alzheimer’s disease. However, it remains unclear which types of deposit are more closely linked with the cognitive symptoms of the disease25.
The need for conformation-specific antibodies
With increasing evidence to support the biomedical importance of Aβ structural variation, conformation-specific Aβ imaging reagents will play a central role in the future of Alzheimer’s research.
Research in humans has shown the clinical relevance of Aβ structural variation. Tissue taken from two Alzheimer’s disease patients with distinct clinical histories revealed that each patient had a predominant Aβ fibril structure; however, the dominant structure was different in each patient26.
Studies in mice and cultured cells have also supported the biological relevance of Aβ structural variation. Structurally distinct Aβ fibrils cause varying levels of toxicity in neuronal cultures, while mice given Aβ from different sources develop distinct patterns of Aβ deposition within the brain27,28.
Furthermore, the complexity of Aβ structure is convincingly reflected by the immune system, with research showing that the antibodies produced in response to Aβ fibrils are diverse, reflecting their structural variation25,29.
Considering all evidence, it is becoming increasingly clear that a single antibody will not be enough to study or target all the possible pathological aggregates of Aβ contributing to Alzheimer’s disease. This makes conformation-specific Aβ antibodies an essential tool for the future of Alzheimer’s disease research30–33.
Conformation-specific amyloid beta antibodies
In collaboration with Professor Charles Glabe (UC Irvine), we developed rabbit monoclonal antibodies against Aβ 1–42 fibrils that can distinguish conformational variation in amyloid structures.
Table 3. Antibody reactivity in human and mouse Alzheimer's disease brain.
Antibody name | Antibody ID | Human Alzheimer's brain specificity shown by IHC** | Alzheimer's mouse model* brain specificity shown by IHC** |
Anti-amyloid fibril antibody [mOC22] - conformation-specific | Frontal cortex plaques | Layer V cortical and CA1 pyramidal neurons | |
Anti-beta amyloid 1-42 antibody [mOC23] - conformation specific | Subset of frontal cortex plaques | Hippocampal plaques | |
Anti-beta amyloid 1-42 antibody [mOC31] - conformation-specific | Vascular amyloid deposits | N/A | |
Anti-beta amyloid 1-4 antibody [mOC64] - conformation-specific | Frontal cortex plaques | N/A | |
Anti-amyloid fibril antibody [mOC78] - conformation specific | Intracellular/nuclear, frontal cortex plaques | Layer V cortical neurons | |
Anti-amyloid fibril antibody [mOC87] - conformation-specific | Frontal cortex plaques | Layer V cortical neurons (intracellular deposits) | |
Anti-beta amyloid 1-42 antibody [mOC98] - conformation-specific | Frontal cortex plaques | Layer V cortical neurons (intracellular deposits) | |
Anti-amyloid fibril antibody [mOC116] - conformation specific | Frontal cortex plaques | Layer V cortical neurons, hippocampal plaques |
*14 month-old 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease
** IHC shown in Hatami et al. 2014
A brief introduction to the tau protein and how it contributes to Alzheimer's disease.
Under normal circumstances, tau is a microtubule-associated protein (MAP) involved in microtubule stabilization. However, it is also a multi-functional protein with a critical role in certain neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's disease34.
The tau protein is highly soluble, expressed in neurons, oligodendrocytes, and astrocytes within the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)35,36.
Tau is primarily found in axons where it regulates microtubule polymerization and stabilization. However, its broad selection of binding partners suggests that it has multiple functions, including postnatal brain maturation, regulation of axonal transport and signaling cascades, cellular response to heat shock, and adult neurogenesis37.
Tau can be divided into four regions: an N-terminal region, a proline-rich domain, a microtubule-binding domain (MBD), and a C-terminal region38. The human tau gene (MAPT) contains 16 exons, and alternative splicing of exons 2, 3, and 10 yields six isoforms (Figure 2).
The tau protein contains 85 potential serine (S), threonine (T), and tyrosine (Y) phosphorylation sites, and under normal conditions, phosphorylation helps to maintain the cytoskeletal structure39. Abnormal phosphorylation of tau is known to contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathology, with approximately 45 specific phosphorylation sites identified in the Alzheimer's disease brain39,40.
In addition to phosphorylation, tau undergoes multiple post-translational modifications, including glycosylation, glycation, truncation, nitration, oxidation, polyamination, ubiquitination, SUMOylation and aggregation41.
Figure 2. Alternative splicing of tau produces isoforms ranging in length from 352 to 441 amino acids. Exons 2 and 3 of the tau gene encode two N terminal inserts (N1 and N2). Absence of exons 2 and 3 gives rise to 0N tau isoforms, the inclusion of exon 2 results in 1N isoforms and inclusion of both exons 2 and 3 produces 2N isoforms. R1–R4 represent the four microtubule-binding domains with R2 being encoded by exon 10. Inclusion of exon 10 results in 4R isoforms, while exclusion results in 3R isoforms.
Role of tau in Alzheimer's disease
Accumulation of plaques and intracellular NFTs (Figure 3) is correlated with Alzheimer's disease symptoms and results in neuron damage and death42. It is now believed that soluble Aβ and tau work in tandem, independently of their accumulation into plaques and tangles, to push neurons towards a diseased state42.
Figure 3. Formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) by the tau protein in tauopathies such as Alzheimer’s disease. Under pathological conditions, tau becomes hyperphosphorylated and detaches from microtubules. Phosphorylated tau then aggregates to form paired helical filaments (PHFs) and NFTs.
In Alzheimer’s disease, the elevation of intracellular soluble Aβ leads to the abnormal phosphorylation of tau and its release from microtubules in a soluble monomeric form39,43. In response to Aβ, tau is relocated from axons to the somatodendritic compartments of neurons43. Here, tau can bind and sequester the Src tyrosine kinase, fyn, altering its localization44.
Elevated levels of fyn accompany the elevated levels of tau in dendritic spines, allowing the phosphorylation and stabilization of excitatory GluN2B NMDA receptors. This enhances glutamate signaling and causes an intracellular flood of Ca2+, which enhances Aβ toxicity42,44,45. Calcium-induced excitotoxicity can damage post-synaptic sites and cause mitochondrial Ca2+ overload, membrane depolarization, oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death42,46,47.
Extracellular vesicles may be involved in the dissemination of pathological Aβ and tau in a prion-like propagation of Alzheimer's disease plagues and NFTs48,49.
Novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease may include preventing the Aβ-induced, tau-dependent enhancement of NMDA receptor activity, by reducing dendritic levels of fyn18 or targeting tau directly50.
Antibodies and kits for tau research
Study tau from every angle with a comprehensive array of research tools to get new insights into tau pathology. From aggregation inhibitors to kits and antibodies, find everything you need to untangle tau, in one place.
Total tau detection
Tau is found in soluble form in the normal brain but in Alzheimer's disease, becomes aggregated and insoluble. Easily detect total tau with bovine serum albumin (BSA) and azide-free antibody, an antibody panel, or an ELISA kit from the table below.
Table 4. Tools to detect total tau.
Reagent | Recommended product | abID |
Total tau antibody | Anti-Tau antibody [TAU-5] - BSA and Azide free | |
Conformation specific tau antibody | Anti-tau Alzheimer's disease antibody [GT-38] - Conformation Specific | ab246808 |
Tau antibody panel | Tau Research Antibody Panel | |
ELISA | Human Tau ELISA Kit |
Note: Studying insoluble tau can be problematic, consider using detergents such as RIPA and Sarkosyl.53
Tau phosphorylation
Tau function is governed by phosphorylation, which becomes dysregulated during pathology, resulting in mislocalization, aggregation, and neuronal death. Effortlessly study all aspects of tau phosphorylation with antibodies against different post-translationally modified sites.
Tau (phospho T217) product highlight
Recombinant Anti-Tau (phospho T217) antibody [EPR24654-24] (ab288160) Rabbit monoclonal to Tau (phospho T217) Suitable for: Dot blot, ELISA Reacts with: Human A carrier-free version of this antibody is also available. |
Table 5. Tools to study tau phosphorylation.
Phosphorylation site | Recommended product | abID |
Serine 202 and threonine 205 | Anti-Tau (phospho S202 + T205) antibody [EPR20390] | |
Threonine 231 | Anti-Tau (phospho T231) antibody [EPR2488] | |
Serine 262 | Anti-Tau (phospho S262) antibody | |
Serine 396 | Anti-Tau (phospho S396) antibody [EPR2731] | |
Serine 422 | Anti-Tau (phospho S422) antibody [EPR2866] |
Browse all antibodies to detect phosphorylated tau.
If you need multiple phosphorylated tau antibodies, try our Tau antibody panel (ab226492).
Tau aggregation inhibitors
The presence of aggregated tau corresponds with pathology in diseases such as Alzheimer’s. Effectively inhibit the formation of neurofibrillary tangles with a potent tau aggregation inhibitor.
Table 6. Tau inhibitors.
Small molecule | Activity | abID |
TRx0237 mesylate (LMTX) | Reduces tau pathology and reverses behavioral impairment in mice. Active in vitro and in vivo52. | |
AZD2858 | Selective GSK-3 inhibitor (IC50 = 68 nM) of tau phosphorylation at the S396 site53. | |
INDY | ATP-competitive DYRK1A/B inhibitor capable of reversing tau phosphorylation54. | |
GSK-3β Inhibitor VII | Cell-permeable, non-ATP competitive GSK-3β inhibitor | |
YM-01 (YM-1) | Allosteric Hsp70 modulator which potently reduces aberrant tau levels (EC50 ~ 0.9 μM)56. |
Browse microtubule activators and inhibitors
Tau and neuroinflammation
There is a complex interplay between misfolded proteins and neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disease.
Table 7. Tools to study tau in the context of neuroinflammation.
Tool | Recommended product(s) | abID |
Mouse and human multiplex cytokine panels | Human Key cytokines (17 plex) Multiplex Immunoassay Panel Mouse Key cytokines (17 plex) Multiplex Immunoassay Panel | |
TNF alpha ELISA kit | Mouse TNF alpha ELISA Kit | |
IL-1 beta ELISA kit | Mouse IL-1 beta ELISA Kit (Interleukin-1 beta) | |
IL-6 ELISA kit | Human IL-6 ELISA Kit (Interleukin-6) High Sensitivity |
37. Morris, M., Maeda, S., Vossel, K. & Mucke, L. The many faces of tau. Neuron 70, 410–426 (2011).
44. Haass, C. & Mandelkow, E. Fyn-tau-amyloid: a toxic triad. Cell 142, 356–8 (2010).